pdf
FLIP
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
Abstract
This paper examines the intricate interplay between counterterrorism strategies and the essential right to a fair trial. It addresses the central question of whether the legal regimes employed to combat terrorism violate basic human rights. The study analyzes the effects of counterterrorism laws on procedural rights, including judicial independence, impartiality, and the right to defense. Using a comparative analysis approach, the paper focuses on legal systems in which derogations involving violations of procedural rights have been identified, highlighting issues related to special courts, emergency laws, and various security measures. Accordingly, this study offers a distinctive perspective for critiquing structural flaws by selecting jurisdictions based on their relevant counterterrorism frameworks rather than their geographical location or legal similarities.
The results reveal an alarming trend: in a significant number of jurisdictions, counterterrorism laws conflict with generally established human rights norms, thereby undermining procedural safeguards under the pretext of national security. The postponement of access to legal services, the use of closed trials, the establishment of special courts, and reliance on statutory instruments enacted during states of emergency run counter to the principles of an open and impartial judiciary. Consequently, these practices raise serious concerns as to whether security imperatives should override fundamental human rights.
The research concludes that, while there is no doubt about the necessity of combating terrorism, preventive measures must be subject to close scrutiny and grounded in robust procedural guarantees. The autonomy of ordinary courts, transparency in judicial proceedings, and the strengthening of international oversight mechanisms constitute key pillars for ensuring an appropriate balance between justice and security.
References
Abad Jara, Sebastian, and Daniel Pereira Campos. "Military Courts and Human Rights Violations in Brazil: From the Perspective of the Inter-American Human Rights System." EJIL: Talk, 15 September 2022. Available at: https://www.ejiltalk.org/military-courts-and-human-rights-violations-in-brazil-from-the-perspective-of-the-inter-american-human-rights-system
(accessed on 29 November 2024).
African Commission on Human Rights. Legal Defence and Assistance Project v. Nigeria, Communication No. 218/98, 6 March 2000.
Ahmed, Dawood, and Elliot Bulmer. "Limitation Clauses." International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Available at: https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/limitation-clauses-primer.pdf
(accessed on 21 December 2024).
Alkarama Foundation. "Saudi Arabia's New Anti-Terrorism Law Makes the Same Mistakes as Its Predecessor by Abusing Human Rights." Available at: https://www.alkarama.org/en/articles/saudi-arabias-new-anti-terrorism-law-makes-same-mistakes-its-predecessor-abusing(accessed on 30 November 2024).
Atkins, Benjamin, and Nathan Moran. "Contemporary International and Domestic Terrorist and Security Threats." In Special Topics in Policing, edited by James F. Albrecht and Geert den Heyer. Cham: Springer, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-67943-8_1 (accessed on 15 November 2024).
Atwan, Abdel Bari. L'histoire secrète d'Al-Qaïda: les origines, les réseaux, la stratégie. Paris, 2007.
Blair, Rachel. "Military Justice in Chile: Exploring Its Ongoing Violation of the American Convention on Human Rights." Jackson School Journal of International Studies, Spring/Summer 2023.
Casciani, Dominic. "Fully Secret Terror Trial Blocked by Court of Appeal." BBC News, 12 June 2014. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-27806814(accessed on 25 December 2024).
Castañeda García, Ivette. "Military Justice in Latin America: A Comparative Analysis." In Military Justice in the Modern Age, edited by Alison Duxbury and Matthew Groves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 5 July 2016. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107326330.011 (accessed on 7 December 2024).
Council of Europe: Commissioner for Human Rights. "Report by Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, Following His Visit to Turkey from 10 to 14 October 2011: Administration of Justice and Protection of Human Rights in Turkey." 10 January 2012, CommDH (2012)2. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12389/21220 (accessed on 27 December 2024).
Deharo, Gaëlle. "Restriction du droit d'accès à un avocat." La lettre juridique, 29 September 2016. Available at: https://www.lexbase.fr/article-juridique/34599451-jurisprudence-restriction-du-droit-d-acces-a-un-avocat (accessed on 4 December 2024).
Desprez, François. "Conformité à la Constitution du Report de l'Intervention de l'Avocat au Cours de la Garde à Vue pour Criminalité Organisée." La Revue des Droits de l'Homme, 23 December 2014. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4000/revdh.1035 (accessed on 26 November 2024).
Dyson, Matthew, and Lorna Woods. Criminal Records, Privacy and the Criminal Justice System. Bloomsbury Professional, 12 September 2019.
England and Wales Court of Appeal (Criminal Division). Guardian News & Media Ltd v. Incedal, EWCA Crim 1861, 24 September 2014.
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Campbell and Fell v. United Kingdom, Application Nos. 7819/77 and 7878/77, 28 June 1984. Available at: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int
(accessed on 26 December 2024).
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Heaney and McGuiness v. Ireland, Application no. 34720/97, 21 December 2000.
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Helmers v. Sweden, serie A no. 212-A, 29 October 1991.
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Murray v. United Kingdom, Judgment of 8 February 1996, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-I.
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Öcalan v. Turkey, Application no. 46221/99, 12 May 2005.
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Werner v. Austria, Rec. 1997-VII, 24 November 1997.
Fatile, Jacob O., and Ganiyu L. Ejalonibu. "Global Terrorism Networks and Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria." In Managing Contemporary Security Challenges in Nigeria. Africa's Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging Countries, edited by A. A. Abdullahi et al. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5296-6_10
(accessed on 26 December 2024).
FIDH. "Arbitrary Drifts in the Fight against Terrorism in Morocco." 7 July 2003. Available at: https://www.fidh.org/en/region/north-africa-middle-east/morocco/Arbitrary-drifts-in-the-fight
(accessed on 26 November 2024).
Fragnon, Julien. La gestion politique du 11 septembre en France. Ph.D. thesis in Political Sciences, Lyon University, 2009.
French Business Law. "Article 306 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure." 3 November 2023. Available at: https://french-business-law.com/french-legislation-art/article-306-of-the-french-code-of-criminal-procedure/ (accessed on 21 December 2024).
French Business Law. "Article 706-73 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure." Available at: https://french-business-law.com/french-legislation-art/article-706-73-of-the-french-code-of-criminal-procedure/ (accessed on 23 December 2024).
French Business Law. "Article 706-88 of the French Code of Criminal Procedure." Available at: https://french-business-law.com/french-legislation-art/article-706-88-of-the-french-code-of-criminal-procedure/ (accessed on 24 November 2024).
Gaucher, Alexis. "Pourquoi Certains Procès Se Déroulent à Huis Clos." L'Yonne Républicaine, 21 October 2024. Available at: https://www.lyonne.fr/auxerre-89000/actualites/pourquoi-certains-proces-se-deroulent-a-huis-clos_14583428/ (accessed on 22 December 2024).
Guillaume, Gilbert. "Terrorisme et Droit international." In RCADI, 1989.
High Court of Justice (England and Wales). R v Sussex Justices; Ex parte McCarthy, 1924, 1 KB 256.
Human Rights Watch. "'You Say You Want a Lawyer': Tunisia's New Law on Detention in Paper and Practice." 1 June 2018. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/06/01/you-say-you-want-lawyer/tunisias-new-law-detention-paper-and-practice
(accessed on 3 December 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Egypt: Counterterrorism Law Erodes Basic Rights." 19 August 2015. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/08/19/egypt-counterterrorism-law-erodes-basic-rights (accessed on 28 December 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Egypt: Unprecedented Expansion of Military Courts." 17 November 2017. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/11/17/egypt-unprecedented-expansion-military-courts (accessed on 27 December 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Peru: Egregious Abuses by Security Forces." 26 April 2023. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/04/26/peru-egregious-abuses-security-forces (accessed on 29 November 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Preempting Justice: Counterterrorism Laws and Procedures in France." 1 July 2008. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/report/2008/07/01/preempting-justice/counterterrorism-laws-and-procedures-france (accessed on 25 November 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Report on Human Rights in Yemen: Submitted by Human Rights Watch to the UN Human Rights Committee on the Occasion of its Review of Yemen in March 2012." February 2012. Available at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/HRW_Yemen_HRC104.pdf (accessed on 4 January 2025).
Human Rights Watch. "Saudi Arabia: New Counterterrorism Law Enables Abuse." 23 November 2017. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/11/23/saudi-arabia-new-counterterrorism-law-enables-abuse (accessed on 30 November 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Tunisia: Landmark Step for Detainee Rights." 4 February 2016. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/02/04/tunisia-landmark-step-detainee-rights (accessed on 30 November 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "Turkey: State of Emergency Provisions Violate Human Rights and Should Be Revoked." 20 October 2016. Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/10/20/turkey-state-emergency-provisions-violate-human-rights-and-should-be-revoked
(accessed on 18 November 2024).
Human Rights Watch. "U.S. Military Commission Trials for 9/11 Suspects a Blow to Justice." News Release, 4 April 2015. Available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/04/04/us-military-commission-trials-911-suspects-blow-justice
(accessed on 28 December 2024).
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). Castillo Petruzzi and Others v. Peru, 30 May 1999.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). Durand Ugarte v. Peru, 16 August 2000.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR). Herzog and Others v. Brazil, 4 July 2018.
International Commission of Jurists. "Egypt Constitutional Amendments: Unaccountable Military, Unchecked President and a Subordinated Judiciary." April 2019. Available at: https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Egypt-Constitutional-amendments-advocacy-analysis-brief-2019-ENG.pdf (accessed on 28 December 2024).
Kagan, Donald, Steven Ozment, Frank M. Turner, and Gregory Francis Viggiano. The Western Heritage. 11th ed. Pearson, 2012.
Knoechelmann, Maike. "Why the Nigerian Counter-Terrorism Policy Toward Boko Haram Has Failed: A Cause and Effect Relationship." In The International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT) Working Papers Series 32, October 2014. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep09448 (accessed on 27 December 2024).
Lawless, Jill. "UK Court Says Terror Trial Can Be Partly Secret." Washington Examiner, 20 February 2016. Available at: https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/2342896/uk-court-says-terror-trial-can-be-partly-secret (accessed on 24 December 2024).
Lysaght, Charles. "Publicity of Court Proceedings." Irish Jurist 38 (2003). JSTOR. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43951793
(accessed on 5 December 2024).
Maniszewska, Katarzyna. "Countering Terrorism: Key Challenges and Proposed Solutions." In Towards a New Definition of Terrorism, Contributions to Security and Defence Studies. Cham: Springer, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-58719-1_4
(accessed on 2 January 2025).
Mastor, Wanda. "L'état d'exception aux États-Unis: le USA Patriot Act et autres violations «en règle» de la constitution." In AIJC, no. XXIV, 2008.
McCall-Smith, Kasey. "How Torture and National Security Have Corrupted the Right to Fair Trial in the 9/11 Military Commissions." Journal of Conflict and Security Law 27, no. 1 (2022). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krac002 (accessed on 22 November 2024).
Momsen, Carsten, and Marco Willumat. "Due Process and Fair Trial." In Elgar Encyclopedia of Crime and Criminal Justice, 28 November 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789902990.due.process.fair.trial (accessed on 17 November 2024).
Montesquieu, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de. The Spirit of Laws, Book XI. London: Printed for J. Collingwood, 1823.
Oderkerk, Marieke. "The Importance of Context: Selecting Legal Systems in Comparative Legal Research." Netherlands International Law Review 48, no. 3 (2001). Available at: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0165070X00001340 (accessed on 19 November 2024).
Okacha, Chuks, and Michael Olugbode. "FG to Amend Anti-Terrorism Act." Thisday, 6 May 2012. Available at: https://oladapokolawole.com/2012/05/06/nigeria-fg-to-amend-anti-terrorism-act/ (accessed on 18 December 2024).
Parker, Tom. Avoiding the Terrorist Trap: Why Respect for Human Rights Is the Key to Defeating Terrorism. Insurgency and Terrorism Series, Potomac Books, 2019.
Parliament of Australia. Australia's Criminal Code of 1995 as Amended by Act No. 13, 2021. Available at: http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Details/C2012C00451 (accessed on 22 November 2024).
Parliament of Egypt. Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt of 2015 as amended in 2019, art. 204. Available at: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/egy127542e.pdf (accessed on 24 December 2024).
Parliament of Republic of Türkiye. Türkiye's Law on Fight against Terrorism, No. 3713 of 1991.
Parliament of United Kingdom. UK Terrorism Act, 2000, as amended by the Terrorism Act 2006. Available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/11 (accessed on 5 December 2024).
Pauwels, Anne. "EU Counterterrorism Cooperation with the MENA: Optimal or Suboptimal?" In Transnational Security Cooperation in the Mediterranean, edited by Robert Mason. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54444-7_4
(accessed on 1 January 2025).
Paye, Jean Clause. "Le «Patriot Act Reauthorization»: Un État d'Urgence Permanent." Multitudes.net. Available at: https://www.multitudes.net/Le-Patriot-Act-Reauthorization-un/ (accessed on 22 December 2024).
Roth, Kenneth. "Justice Cheater." The International Herald Tribune, 6 May 2012. Available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/05/06/justice-cheated (accessed on 28 December 2024).
Satan, Ali. Les dispositifs juridiques de lutte contre le terrorisme et les garanties des droits fondamentaux, le cas de la France et des pays du Golfe. Ph.D Thesis in Public Law, Sorbonne University, 2019.
Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders. "Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary." 6 September 1985. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/basic-principles-independence-judiciary (accessed on 26 December 2024).
Sherman, Jake, and Agathe Sarfati. "Reflecting on the UN's Role in Counterterrorism Twenty Years After 9/11." IPI Global Observatory, 8 June 2021. Available at: https://theglobalobservatory.org/2021/06/reflecting-on-the-uns-role-in-counterterrorism-twenty-years-after (accessed on 1 January 2025).
Simoncini, Gabriele. "The Price to Be Paid: The Impacts of Counterterrorism on a New Democratic Polity." In Counterterrorism in Transition: Post-2011 Tunisian Democracy and the War on Terror. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2024. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54184-1_5 (accessed on 3 December 2024).
Steyn, Johan. "Guantanamo Bay: The Legal Black Hole." The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 53, no. 1 (2004).
The United Nations Human Rights Committee. "Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee for the United Kingdom," 93rd Session, Geneva, 7–25 July 2008, UN Doc. ICCPR/C/GBR/CO/6, 30 July 2008. Available at: www.icj.org/IMG/CO_UK.pdf
(accessed on 5 December 2024).
Tuomioistuimet.fi. "Publicity in General Courts." Available at: https://tuomioistuimet.fi/en/index/asiointijajulkisuus/oikeudenkaynninjulkisuus/publicityingeneralcourts.html (accessed on 20 December 2024).
UN General Assembly. "Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms While Countering Terrorism: Note / by the Secretary-General, Martin Scheinin." 6 August 2008 (A/63/223). Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/48dce8222.html (accessed on 20 December 2024).
UN Human Rights Council. "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Independence of Judges and Lawyers on Her Mission to Sri Lanka," A/HRC/35/31/Add.1, 23 March 2017. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/reference/mission/unhrc/2017/en/116933
(accessed on 24 December 2024).
UN Human Rights Council. "Report of the Sub-Commission Special Rapporteur on Terrorism and Human Rights: Specific Human Rights Issues: New Priorities, in Particular Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism, Kalliopi K. Koufa." 3 August 2006 (A/HRC/Sub.1/58/30). Available at: https://undocs.org/A/HRC/Sub.1/58/30 (accessed on 20 November 2024).
United Nations Commission on Human Rights. "Report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention," UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/40, 15 December 1995. Available at: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/228235/files/E_CN.4_1996_40-EN.pdf (accessed on 25 December 2024).
United Nations Human Rights Committee. "General Comment No. 32: Article 14, Right to Equality before Courts and Tribunals and to a Fair Trial," CCPR/C/GC/32, 23 August 2007. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/legal/general/hrc/2007/en/52583 (accessed on 21 December 2024).
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). "About Protecting Human Rights While Countering Terrorism and Preventing Violent Extremism." Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/terrorism/about-protecting-human-rights-while-countering-terrorism-and-preventing-violent-extremism (accessed on 1 January 2025).
United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). "Rampant Abuse of Counter-Terrorism Laws Threaten Human Rights Globally, Warns UN Expert." March 2024. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/03/rampant-abuse-counter-terrorism-laws-threaten-human-rights-globally-warns-un (accessed on 3 January 2025).
United Nations Rule of Law. "Qatar: Promotion and Protection of Human Rights." Available at: https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/blog/portfolio-items/qatar-promotion-and-protection-of-human-rights/ (accessed on 24 December 2024).
USA Secretary of Defense. "US Manual For Military Commissions." 2010. Available at: https://www.mc.mil/portals/0/2010_manual_for_military_commissions.pdf (accessed on 22 December 2024).
Vagts, Detlev F. "Which Courts Should Try Persons Accused of Terrorism?" European Journal of International Law 14, no. 2 (2003): 313–326. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/14.2.313 (accessed on 9 December 2024).
Van Hoecke, Mark. "Methodology of Comparative Legal Research." Law and Method, June 2015. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5553/REM/.000010 (accessed on 19 November 2024).
Weiss, Michael, and Hassan Hassan. ISIS: Inside the Army of Terror. 2nd ed. Regan Arts, 2016.
Wellman, Carl. Terrorism and Counterterrorism 9. Springer in Law. Dordrecht: Springer, 2013. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6007-3_1 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
